North Side Bank of Brooklyn, ca. 1978. The 1889 Romanesque Revival building by Theobald Engelhardt was the original location on the North Side Bank of Brooklyn. The bank was acquired by the Manufacturer’s Trust Bank in 1922. The Grand Street branch shuttered during the 20th century, as Manufacturer’s Trust went through a series of mergers, eventually becoming part of Chase Bank. In recent years, the building has been a retail location and event space; its weathered exterior continues to recall the rapidly-developing neighborhood’s industrial roots.

Little boys standing on the south side of Broadway between Berry Street and Bedford Avenue, ca. 1975. The elevated subway trestle east of the Williamsburg Bridge is visible between buildings at right.

St. Mark's Protestant Episcopal Church, pre-1909. The community of St. Mark's was founded in 1838 and moved into their Gothic style stone church at the corner of Bedford Avenue and South 5th Street in 1841. After six successful decades in that location the church was informed that the land on which the church sat was being taken by imminent domain for an entrance to the new Williamsburg Bridge. The church was razed after the turn of the century and the congregation moved to a location in Crown Heights on Union Street and Brooklyn Avenue.

Austin, Nichols and Company Warehouse, April 6, 1915. The Austin, Nichols and Company Warehouse was constructed in 1914 and 1915 for its namesake, the largest importing and manufacturing wholesale grocery business in the world. Critics at the time described the Cass Gilbert-designed, massive, reinforced concrete building, as an outstanding example of Egyptian Revival architecture rarely found in New York City and the United States. The warehouse utilized piers, railway tracks, freight elevators, conveyor belts, and pneumatic tubes for the production of foodstuffs under the Sunbeam Foods label. The building remained the headquarters for Austin, Nichols & Co. until the late 1950s. The building was acquired by 184 Kent Avenue Associates in 1986 and rented to residential and commercial tenants.

Austin, Nichols and Co Warehouse In 1915, Austin Nichols & Co., the largest wholesale grocers at the time, moved from lower Manhattan's wholesale food district-- today's TriBeCa-- to a new superblock site on the Williamsburg waterfront. The imposing structure was designed by Cass Gilbert, architect of the just-completed world's tallest skyscraper, the Woolworth Building. Developed as a warehouse and production plant where goods were prepared, processed, and packaged under the Sunbeam Foods label, the immense plant provided 450,000 sq. ft. of floor space on four floors. Financiers Havemeyer & Elder, who owned the nearby sugar refinery, directed Gilbert to make the Manhattan (west) façade monumental in appearance to publicize the factory and the expanding rail terminal. The reinforced-concrete structure, built by Turner Construction Company in the Ransome patented system, was lauded as a "Model of Modern Construction and Efficiency" (Brooklyn Daily Eagle) and won praise from European Modern architects, Le Corbusier and Walter Gropius. In 2009, the building has been redeveloped as a 300-unit residential complex.

Sugar refining was one of New York City's leading industries from colonial times, when thick-walled masonry "sugar houses" of five to seven stories were some of the tallest structures in Manhattan. The first of these vertical factories was erected on Wall Street in 1729, and at least four similar sugar houses operated in lower Manhattan through the mid-1830s, when new machinery and methods transformed the production process. In 1884, Havemeyer & Elder constructed the world's largest sugar refinery on the Brooklyn waterfront. The burgeoning industry consolidated in 1897 under a cartel led by the Havemeyer family's Sugar Refineries Company (later renamed the American Sugar Refining Company), at its peak it controlled 98% of the country's sugar production. The Filter, Pan & Finishing House of Havemeyer & Elder was a three-building complex for filtering and reducing, drying, refining, grading, and packaging sugar-- all carried out in vertical production process. The deep waters of Wallabout Bay and Bushwick Creek allowed direct docking for ships unloading raw sugar and taking on packaged goods as cargo. The refinery continued to evolve with additions to the complex in the 1920s and the name was changed to Domino Sugar Corporation in 1991. With a workforce of 4,500, it had a minimum capacity of 1,200 pounds of sugar a day. Refining ceased in 2009, leaving only a packaging operation until the factory closed in 2004. In 2007, the Landmark Preservation Commission designated the original three-building complex as a New York City landmark, noting that, at 155 feet tall, it was the tallest building on the Brooklyn waterfront, approaching the height of early skyscrapers in lower Manhattan's financial district." Plans are underway by developer CPC Resources for a large-scale residential and commercial complex that will restore the Filter, Pan & Finishing House as a community center by Beyer Blinder & Belle Architects and replace the remainder of the site with new high-rise apartment buildings designed by Rafael Vinoly Architects.

Smith, Gray & Company Building ARCHITECT: attributed to William H. Gaynor DATE: 1870 STYLE: Cast-iron The Smith, Gray & Co. Building is an early, significantly intact, 5-story and 25-foot-wide cast-iron-fronted store-and-loft building in Brooklyn. The firm was founded by tailor Edward Smith, who began his business in 1833. This structure, constructed in 1870, is attributed to William H. Gaylor, a prominent Brooklyn architect who designed three other cast-iron-fronted structures for Smith between 1873 and 1884. This iron front was fabricated by George R. Jackson & Sons, and the builders were probably Thomas and William Lamb who, according to the Brooklyn Daily Eagle, built all of Smith, Gray’s stores. Typical of cast iron designs in the Second Empire style, the building’s main facade features tiered upper stories with segmental-arched fenestration framed by Corinthian columns and pilasters.

The former Novelty Theatre on Driggs Avenue, 1917. The theater was demolished in 1919, with an apartment building named Novelty Court built in its place. It was there that NYPD whistleblower Frank Serpico was shot in suspicious circumstances during a 1971 drug bust. Serpico, portrayed by Al Pacino in the film of the same name, was a vocal critic of the widespread corruption in the department.

In the wake of excessive new construction and urban renewal initiatives across the country there are growing trends of gentrification and community displacement. Using NYC as a case study, how could we consider adaptive reuse of older structures and thoughtful architectural additions to building sites as a way to create not only sustainable architectural precedents, but community-oriented structures? As examples of older structures that have been renovated and established new uses for their building types, the Domino Sugar Factory, Cooper Square CLT Housing Units, and the 122 Community Center serve as examples of adaptive reuse, but comparatively all for different reasons.

99 Broadway entrance detail, ca. 1975.

“American Sugar Refining Company, East River, Kent Avenue, Between South First and South Second Streets. The Largest in the World.” Ca. 1915. Williamsburg’s East River waterfront was once home to America’s largest concentration of sugar refining facilities — in 1870, the American Sugar refinery processed more than half of the sugar consumed nationally. The original factory, built in 1856, was damaged in an 1882 fire. The current 10-story brick structure was built as a fire-proof replacement. The factory continued to operate until 2004. The site is currently being redeveloped as a residential complex.

109 South 6th Street, ca. 1975. This Romanesque Revival/Queen Anne building was constructed in 1891 and designed by William H. Gaylor. originally built as the Bedford Avenue Theatre, it opened in October of 1891 with a production of a musical called Jolly Surprise. The theatre became the Empire Theatre in 1893 and by 1903 its life as a theatre was over. The construction of entrance roadways for the new Williamsburg Bridge caused the entire back half of building, including the stage, to be demolished. In the 1930s the building became a warehouse for the Fruitcrest Corporation (the painted sign is seen on the side facade in this photograph). Fruitcrest was a manufacturer of jams, jellies, and fruit juices. The company later developed the popular Juicy Juice and moved out of this building, first to Long Island, then to California. After Fruitcrest vacated the building it suffered from deterioration. In 2007 it was purchased by a fitness company that completely restored the exterior. Today, the red brick and terra cotta trim and medallions are in excellent condition.

Listen to the Gotham Center and Brendan Cooper's podcast on the history on the Domino Sugar Refinery, a monument of New York Industry, while examining these related archival images!

View of the Williamsburg Bridge from South 6th and Berry Streets. Berenice Abbott, April 28, 1937.

112 South 3rd Street, adjoining the southeast corner of Berry Street, showing the old Brooklyn Hospital and Dispensary. It first appears on an 1886 atlas of the City of Brooklyn. Sperr refers to it as "The Relief," probably referring to it being used, at this time, as a station of the Home Relief Bureau. May 1, 1936.

33-35 Grand Street, ca. 1978. Built in 1889 by Theobald Engelhardt, a Brooklyn architect who mostly worked in Williamsburg and Bushwick, this Romanesque Revival style building was the first location for the newly chartered North Side Savings Bank. Smaller in size than many of Brooklyn's other banks from this time period, the bank fit in with the industrial and commercial feel of the neighborhood. The bank was particularly successful, garnering clients not only from the local industries but also using their location right near the ferry terminal to attract commuters. The bank became a part of the Manufacturer’s Trust Bank in 1922. Manufacturer's Trust, through various mergers and renaming, is today J.P. Morgan Chase. The little building became a new branch of the larger bank in 1992 but closed sometime in the mid century. The building has been a clothing store, a hip barber shop, and an event space in recent years. There is a large, renovated apartment on the second floor. Despite the drastic changes that Williamsburg has seen in the last two decades, this building, with its darkened rough cut stone facade and pressed metal pediment, has remained largely the same as when this photograph was taken, and likely for much of its history.

261 Bedford Avenue, ca. 1923. Though called the Greenpoint Bathhouse in a number of sources, this building is firmly located in Williamsburg. Design by Henry Bacon, architect of the Lincoln Memorial in D.C., the structure was opened in 1922. Saved from demolition in 1983 by an intrepid city Parks and Recreation Commissioner named Henry J. Stern, the facility remains a community pool and recreation center. The ceiling above the pool is a striking peaked skylight surrounded by a pressed copper ceiling. The entire building, including the natatorium, had a major renovation in the late 1990s.