With the influx of Jewish Yiddish-speaking immigrants to New York, the audience for Yiddish publications grew. Forward publisher Louis Miller proposed the title Forverts – Forward in English – transliterated from Vorwärts, the German Socialist Democratic party newspaper, whose ideals inspired the Forward’s founders. These images help tell the story of the Forward newspaper itself, whose daily updates of local and international news helped shaped a way of life for Jewish immigrants for generations.

While Fred E. French's development Tudor City flourished, the perils of private-sector redevelopment emerged at French’s next major project, Knickerbocker Village, located on the Lower East Side near the Manhattan Bridge. When his plans, which included the demolition of the infamous “Lung Block,” faltered in the Depression economy, he was left holding 14.5 acres of tenement property, optioned at about $14 psf. In 1933, French went hat-in-hand to the federal government’s Reconstruction Finance Corporation to beg for millions to realize his dream. Federal officials provided only enough for part of the project: two massive perimeter blocks that, at 12 stories, rose high above the surrounding tenements, yet covered just about half the land. The project achieved a density of 800 people per acre. NYCHA’s first Chair, Langdon Post, called Knickerbocker Village “new types of slums,” but the tenants disagreed after repairs were made to the hastily-built buildings.

Wong Family Association, 1960s. One of Poy Gum Lee's final designs in Chinatown, the Wong Family Association Building is also perhaps his most strictly modern. While most of his other designs in New York were somewhat heavily influenced by Chinese architectural styles, this structure had an overt mid-century modern facade. The building was constructed for a Chinese benevolent society which assisted new immigrants and created and organized social, political, and economic structures within the Chinese community.

48 Henry Street, July 1967.

Abraham “Ab” Cahan was the founding editor of the Forward and made the paper a success. He thought that it must align itself with the interests of the workers, outside of their preoccupation with the daily struggle for bread. Cahan was the first intellectual activist to speak in Yiddish while addressing the working masses in the Lower East Side’s meeting halls. This picture appeared on the front page of the paper’s 30th anniversary edition in 1927.

The intersection of Division, Canal, and Ludlow Streets. The intricate facade former Loew’s Canal Street Theater is visible at center-right, on the north side of Canal Street.

51 Market Street, ca. 1978. This four-story building, also known as the William and Rosamond Clark House, was constructed in 1824-25 by an unknown architect. Designed for William Clark, a grocer, the building is an early example of the Late Federal style on the Lower East Side. The home was erected at a time when the neighborhood was an affluent residential area. While the structure may not appear particularly architecturally distinguished today, the building was one of the first to be designated after the Landmark Commission was created in 1965.

Seward Park Branch, NYPL, ca. 1977.

Henry Street, south side between Oliver and Catherine Street, Manhattan, showing P.S. #1, 1920. One of four public schools in New York City that have used the name“P.S. 1”, the C.B.J. Snyder designed school was completed in 1897. When opened it served the largely Italian immigrant neighborhood. Subsequent immigration waves included Polish and Russian Jews during and after World War I and later Puerto Ricans and Chinese students. It is believed that this school had the very first rooftop playground. Famous alum include singers Luther Vandross and Eddie Cantor, as well as actors Jimmy Durante and Robert Loggia. Fun fact: This school's origins date to the New York Free School 1, founded in 1809, which predates even the city's Board of Education, set up in 1842.

Camp Vacamas, started in 1924, is a sleepaway camp originally located Upstate in the Catskills, in Kingston, N.Y. Founded by several Jewish organizations including The Forward, the name is an acronym of the East Side Vacation Camp Association. The camp is now located in West Milford, N.J. and is still called Camp Vacamas.

A 5-story structure, No. 68 (second from the corner), was supposed to have been the first place where stereopticon and shadow views were first shown. It also is reputed to have had the first public meeting rooms on this thoroughfare.

Pagoda Theater, 1964. The Pagoda Theater, which was designed in 1963, was the last new building in New York's Chinatown created by the Chinatown-born architect Poy Gum Lee. Opened in 1964, the theater was the first Chinese language movie theater in the neighborhood built expressly for that purpose (the other three had been converted into theaters). The theater was rendered in a Chinese-influenced, modern style with a three-tiered pagoda at the corner. The auditorium sat just under 500 patrons. The opening of the theater was celebrated with a dragon dance through the nearby streets of Chinatown. The theater closed in the late 1980s and was razed and replaced in the early 1990s with a 15-story commercial structure.

One of the finest of the Greek Revival churches in Manhattan, it has been attributed to Minard Lafever because of the beauty of its detail. The porch is recessed between wide flanking sidewalls, as is the case with St. John's in the Village, only this church is simple distyle in antis of the Doric order.

Shearith Israel Graveyard ARCHITECT: Unknown DATE: 1683 STYLE: Graveyard This small graveyard is what remains today of the early burial ground of the Sephardic Jewish congregation, Shearith Israel. It was established on this site in the Seventeenth Century and thus represents one of the oldest cemeteries within the City. Handsome headstones are here interspersed by marble sarcophagus with simple flat-slab tops. One little monument is surmounted by a small pyramidal stone cap. The unique quality of this small plot lies not only in the simplicity of its early tombs but in its forgotten aspect, surrounded by houses, a reminder of our earliest history.

The longtime home of the Jewish Daily Forward sits on East Broadway between Rutgers and Jefferson Streets. The Yiddish-language newspaper was founded in 1897 and built its iconic headquarters in 1912 at ground zero for its Eastern European constituents. The legendary paper still publishes digitally but its landmark building is a testament to the changing landscape of the neighborhood - and country. Through Spring 2020, the Museum at Eldridge Street is teaming up with the Forward to present an exhibition of metal press plates in the Forward archives. These artifacts of the printing process show the ways in which images were used in the Forward to illustrate Jewish culture around the world. In the exhibition, the plates are displayed alongside contemporary prints made in the traditional process at the South Street Seaport Museum's Bowne & Co., Stationers. More information at eldridgestreet.org/pressed.

Saint James Roman Catholic Church ARCHITECT: Unknown DATE: 1835-37 STYLE: Greek Revival, Church St. James Church is a fine example of Greek Revival architecture. It has recessed porch with two columns on either side of the porch are enclosed stairs with their own doors opening on to the street. The entire front is crowned by a low gable pediment. One of the principal contributions of the Greek Revival in this country was its modification of the classic temple form.

215-219 Madison Street, north side, between Rutgers and Jefferson Streets.

Much-beloved by his legions of Forverts-reading fans, actor Edward G. Robinson was born Emanuel Goldengers in Romania and grew up in a Yiddish-speaking household on the Lower East Side. Here, he visits the paper’s office for a shot with editor Cahan at the time his film The Hole in the Wall was released.

Chatham Branch, NYPL, ca. 1903. Chatham Square Branch was the first of twelve Carnegie libraries designed by McKim, Mead & White. Completed in 1903, the structure remains one of the most intact Carnegie libraries (interior and exterior) in the city. The Chinatown-located library has served that community nearly since its opening. The library began a circulating Chinese language collection in 1911. Today the Chinese Heritage Collection, a unique collection of materials in English and Chinese, is housed on the lower floor.

Children on the Allen Street median eating ice cream. No. 21, the Lucky Merchandise Co. is seen in the background, 1955.

"Market Street, east side, north from Madison, to and including Henry Streets. The Manhattan Bridge is seen in the background." - P.L. Sperr, September 9, 1927.

Tracks of the Second Avenue El above Division Street, viewed from the south walkway of the Manhattan Bridge. September 24, 1927.

165 Henry Street, formerly the Rabbi Jacob Joseph School, ca. 1980. Founded in 1903, the Rabbi Jacob Joseph School is a modern-day Orthodox Jewish school, also known as a yeshiva. The institution was named after Rabbi Jacob Joseph, the chief rabbi of New York City's Association of American Orthodox Hebrew Congregations. Hundreds of rabbis and community leaders have attended this school. It saw its most productive years between the 1940s and the 1960s. In 1976, the institution relocated to the Richmond area of Staten Island, where it continues to teach its rigorous Talmudic curriculum to students from nursery age through the twelfth grade.

Named for a grove of fruit trees on the DeLancey estate that comprised much of this area, Orchard Street is characterized by its tenements and history as a commercial thoroughfare, hosting many prosperous shops and street vendors. The five-story pre-law tenement at number 97 was purchased by the Lower East Side Tenement Museum in 1988 to interpret the history of immigration to the area. It is estimated that roughly 7,500 people from 25 countries resided in the building until it was sealed due to non-compliance with City housing codes in 1935. The six-story, red brick, Queen-Anne-style Old Law tenement at number 14-16 features a fanciful cornice and terra-cotta Stars of David, a feature shared by its sister building at number 47. 97 Orchard is listed on the State and National Register of Historic Places.

“Street Scene - Lower East Side, 1898. From intersection of Hester and Suffolk Sts. Hester St. at Right; Cart at Left on Norfolk; Sussex in Background; Clearance for Seward Park.”

Olliffe Pharmacy, ca. 1950. In 1805 Dr. William F. Olliffe opened his druggist business. The location of the original shop is unknown, though it could have possibly been here at 6 Bowery. The wealthy Olliffe family lived on Broome Street (described as a "then a fashionable quarter of New York"). Olliffe's son, also William (M.) took over the pharmacy business likely in the 1860s. A late biography of the man noted that he "continued as proprietor in such a way as to leave him large leisure for social and other engagements." William M. died in 1885, but the Bowery shop survived with his name on the sign until 1957, when it closed after more than 150 years in business!

This 6-story building was demolished to make way for the F train subway entrance on the south east corner of Rutgers Street and East Broadway.

“Rendering of a new Public School on Hester Street between Orchard and Ludlow Streets.” Designed by Superintendent of School Buildings C.B.J. Snyder in the late 19th century, P.S. 42 today bears the name of Benjamin Altman, an entrepreneur and art collector born and raised on the Lower East Side. Altman worked in his father’s dry goods store on Attorney Street before founding B. Altman & Co. on Third Avenue and 10th Street, in 1865. Upon his death in 1913, Altman bequeathed his art collection, including works by Rembrandt, to the Metropolitan Museum of Art.

St. James Roman Catholic Church, 1938. This fieldstone Greek Revival church (right) was built between 1835-37 and is the second-oldest Catholic church building in Manhattan. Despite its status as a New York City Landmark, the church was closed in 1983 due to deterioration and concerns that its roof could collapse. The structure was damaged in a 2011 fire, but remains intact. In the middle ground, the two-level elevated tracks of the Second and Third Avenue elevated lines run above New Bowery (St. James Place), between Franklin Square and the split at Chatham Square. In the far background, the elevated tracks of the IRT City Hall Spur are visible over Park Row.

"Chinatown Today," a 1973 mural by Alan Okada, viewed from Pike Street.; ca. 1978. Okada's mural was one of several produced by the City Arts Workshop, a community organization promoting the representation of the neighborhood's communities of color through the arts, especially murals. "Chinatown Today," appeared on the eastern wall of No. 107 East Broadway, above a vacant lot along Pike Street. After Edmund Vincent Gillon's photo, the single-story Hong Kong Supermarket opened on this lot. In May 2009, a fire at the supermarket caused heavy damage to the buildings abutting this corner, leading to the demolition of No. 107. By then, however, Okada's mural had been painted over.

Division Street tobacco store, January 26, 1938. According to “Changing New York,” the collection of photographer Berenice Abbott’s WPA work: “The Scharlin family opened its snuff store in 1876. The Yiddish signs in the window say ‘Do you want real strong smelling tobacco? Come in and see for yourself-free trial.’ At its height, the business had branches throughout the nation, and, in 1906, Mrs Scharlin reportedly declined an offer of $500,000. But, by the time of the Depression, the vogue for snuff had ended and the business was in decline. The seven-foot wooden statue of "Sandy" the kilted Scotsman holding a snuff box advertised Scharlin's snuff from the 1870 until 1938. He now resides in the Shelburne Museum in Vermont.” The tenement building that housed the Scharlin storefront is still standing, a few doors west of the Knickerbocker Post Office’s rear entrance.

The Forward Building, 175 East Broadway, ca. 1989. Once the headquarters of the city’s Yiddish-language newspaper, The Forward, 175 East Broadway is a Beaux Arts architectural masterpiece that sits directly across from Seward Park. Designed to the plans of architect George Boehm, the Forward Building was erected in 1912 to accommodate the paper’s growing staff and replace its former makeshift-office in a tenement building. When completed, this ten-story tower was the first “skyscraper” in the Lower East Side.

Youths sit on the stoop of the former Congregation Makower of Polen, 203 Henry Street; ca. 1978.

Christmas trees for sale outside Gogel's Delicatessen. December 23, 1941.

Kletzker Brotherly Aid Association building, ca. 1978. The Kletzker Landsmannschaft, an aid organization for immigrants, was founded in 1892 by Jewish immigrants from Kletzk, Poland (near present-day Minsk, Belarus). The L-shaped building, which has an additonal entrance at 41 Canal Street, has since been a funeral home serving the Jewish, Italian, and Chinese communities of the Lower East Side.

Group of Socialist leaders including Forward editor in chief Ab Cahan (in center, looking to his right), former Vienna, Austria vice-Mayor Dr. Max Winter, and Frank R. Crosswaith, founder of the Negro Labor Committee

Anshe Chesed and Rodeph Sholom are respectively the oldest and second oldest surviving synagogue buildings in the city, and some of the oldest in the country. Both were constructed for German Jewish congregations in German architectural styles: Gothic Revival and Rundbogenstil (“round-arch style”), and feature red brick, central staircases and symmetrical façades with recessed central sections and square towers. Kehila Kedosha Janina Synagogue is the only Greek Synagogue in New York and the only synagogue of Romaniote Jews in the Western Hemisphere. The Eldridge Street Synagogue was America’s first major house of worship built by Eastern European Orthodox Jews. The yellow brick building features Moorish and Romanesque details and rich ornament. At its peak in the early 20th century, the synagogue hosted as many as 1,000 worshippers at services, but was forced to close in the mid-20th century when the area’s Jewish population began to dwindle. In 1986, the Eldridge Street Project funded a large-scale restoration of the building, which was repurposed as a museum. The Former Congregation Anshe Chesed, Kehila Kedosha Janina Synagogue and the Former Eldridge Street Synagogue are all designated New York City Individual Landmarks.

Pushcarts and garment stores on Hester Street, ca. 1938.

Opposite Mulberry Bend ca. 1898 This stretch of East Broadway was enjoying a revival of sorts after the 1892 demolition of the adjacent notorious slum, the Mulberry Bend. Here the well-dressed families and closed shops- one with a sign in Hebrew- suggests that it is Saturday and families are milling about after attending synagogue. Lazarus Levy- the proprietor of the shop at 30 East Broadway- was among twelve and a half pages of Levys listed in the 1898 city directory. He moved his business to East Houston Street within the year.

Essex and Hester Streets, looking West, toward Ludlow Street. The Second Avenue El tracks are visible in the background, above Allen Street. Service ran along this segment, opened in 1880 and including stops at nearby Canal and Grand Streets, until its closure in 1942.

“Storefronts at the intersection of Division and Canal Streets. In the center is the former Loew's Canal Street Theatre.” Thomas Lamb designed the theater and its facade, completed in 1927. Loew’s Canal Street opened with a capacity of over 2,300 and remained in operation for at least 30 years. The former theater was sold in 1960 for retail use and designated a New York City Landmark in 2010.

Located at 54 Canal Street, this 12 story classical-style bank was built by architects Rouse & Goldstone for Sender Jarmulowsky in 1912. Jarmulowsky established his banking business on the Lower East Side in 1873 and was operating at this location by 1878. Here, recent immigrants could set up bank accounts, send remittances, and buy steerage tickets for their European relatives – in Yiddish. The bank quickly became a household name among Jews on both sides of the ocean. According to legend, Jarmulowsky added the capital to the top of the building (now removed) so that it would be the tallest in the neighborhood. His original plan had not included this detail, but the Forward Building down the street on East Broadway went up simultaneously and was slightly taller than his bank prompting the architectural change. The bank become a testament to Jarmulowsky’s success as a businessman and reflected his prominence in the Jewish community of the Lower East Side. Jarmulowsky died in 1912 shortly after the bank was completed, and his sons took over the business. unfortunately, they lacked their father’s business acumen and mismanaged the business. In 1914, at the start of World War I, the bank closed as many depositors made “runs” on the bank to get money to help their families in Europe. According to the New York Times, 2,000 people demonstrated in front of the bank. 500 people stormed the house where son Meyer Jarmulowsky lived, forcing him to escape across tenement rooftops. Jarmulowsky’s sons were indicted for banking fraud and the bank closed. The State of New York took over the bank in May 1917 and auctioned it off. In 2009, Jarmulowsky’s Bank building was designated a landmark by the Landmarks Preservation Commission. The building is currently (2015) being restored and the temple at the top will be rebuilt.

“Looking south on Orchard Street at the Sender Jarmulowsky Bank Building, 54-58 Canal Street.” The Jarmulowsky Bank Building was built by architects Rouse & Goldstone in 1912, in Beaux-Arts style. The bank failed after the United States entered World War I as immigrant depositors withtheir money to send to relatives abroad, and the bank became insolvent. Until 1990, the building featured a massive columned tower rising 50 feet to a dome ringed by eagles, allegedly added at Jarmulowsky’s behest in order to make sure his building was the neighborhood's tallest.

Located on a stretch of East Broadway once known as “Yiddish newspaper row”, this was the headquarters for Vorwärtz, or the Jewish Daily Forward, the most widely read Yiddish newspaper in the United States. First published in 1897, it was immensely influential on the Jewish community for its support of socialist causes and for its articles offering advice on everyday struggles, making the most of America’s opportunities and encouraging children’s education. The terra cotta-clad building features medallions with faces of socialist heroes Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels, Karl Liebknecht and Ferdinand Lassalle above the entry, Vorwärtz in Yiddish at the building’s crown, and a clock at the parapet. The paper moved uptown in 1974 and the building was converted to condominiums in the 1990s. The Forward Building is a New York City Individual Landmark.

Oliver Street Baptist Church ARCHITECT: Isaac Lucas DATE: 1844-45 STYLE: Greek Revival The Oliver Street Baptist Church is a fine local expression of Greek Revival architecture stated in its simplest terms and it uses inexpensive materials which nevertheless produce an overall effect of great dignity. The recessed portico with its two handsome Ionic columns is flanked on either side by plain wall surfaces relieved only by the introduction of simple panels. This composition is crowned by a well proportioned low-angled gable (pediment). The sidewalls have full length windows which light the aisles and the galleries above them.

The Classic Coffee Shop, 56 Hester Street, ca. 1984. The coffee shop and diner at right has been serving the Lower East Side since the mid 1970s. The old-style lunch counter was owned in the mid century by a Benny Steinberg before being inherited by Miguel Morales who passed it along to his son, Carmine. They continue to serve no-frills fare (coffee, tuna melts, and grilled cheese) to the ever changing LES population.

Presbyterian Church of the Sea and Land, May, 1924.

After returning to New York from Paris in 1929, photographer Berenice Abbott set out to document the changing landscape she encountered in the city. Despite initially struggling to find funding for this endeavor, Abbott was hired by the Federal Art Project to complete a collection that became known as Changing New York. Although Abbott’s focus was the city’s changing nature, examining her photographs almost a century later brings to light a contrasting theme: the continuity within the change; aspects of New York life that have remained constant through the decades, serving as a reflection of some of the many things that make New York New York.

Just as churches were often converted into synagogues by newly arriving Jewish immigrants, the inverse happened as well. This synagogue was built by Kol Israel Ansche Poland in “eclectic Moorish-Romanesque-Gothic style” by the architectural team of Herter & Schneider. It cost $100,000 and was dedicated on September 19, 1892. It gave the congregation much needed space for their rapidly growing congregation. Unfortunately, prosperity was short-lived and the congregation had to sell the building to St. Barbara’s Greek Orthodox Church in 1926. In short order, St. Barbara’s, too, had financial trouble and the building was foreclosed in the late 20s. It sat vacant until 1934 when St. Barbara’s was able to reacquire the property. The church made some alterations, removing or altering the Gothic stained glass windows and adding cross iconography but otherwise left the facade as it was. St. Barbara’s still owns the property today.

The Greek Orthodox Church of St. John the Baptist, October 1930. Built for the Congregation Kol Israel Anshe Poland in 1892, the synagogue at 27 Forsyth Street (then nos. 20-22) was sold to the Greek Orthodox Church in 1926. Today, it is St. Barbara’s Greek Orthodox Church The building was designed by the firm Herter & Schneider, whose Francis William Herter had previously designed the nearby Eldridge Street Synagogue.

88 Division Street, at the intersection of Division, Eldridge, and Forsyth Streets, looking north on Eldridge towards Canal Street. The Eldridge Street Synagogue, opened in 1887, and beautifully restored at the start of the 21st century, is visible on the east side of Eldridge Street (center).

William and Rosamond Clark House ARCHITECT: Unknown DATE: 1824-25 STYLE: Federal The William and Rosamond Clark House is one of New York City’s few remaining late Federal houses still retaining a significant range of rich architectural details of the period. Above the windows are their original paneled lintels on the first three floors. The lintels are more elaborate than is usual, being enriched with both panels and rosettes. The basement windows are framed with a rusticated architrave composed of alternating smooth and textured blocks of stone. Most of the exterior ironwork is original.

Built in 1887, the Eldridge Street Synagogue was the first grand synagogue built by Eastern European Jews in the United States. Now a museum, it stands as a testament to the 19th century’s great wave of Jewish migration and the Lower East Side’s legendary Jewish community. The synagogue was designed in a Moorish style and built by German Catholic brothers Peter and Francis Herter. It was only the fifth building the Herter brothers had created in New York, and the first non-tenement structure. The structure’s Moorish style is evident in the horseshoe windows on the exterior, interior domes & arches, and dazzling decorative arts in the main sanctuary. The interior also boasts a more recent addition - a stained glass window designed by artist Kiki Smith & architect Deborah Gans, installed in 2010 to replace a historic rose window damaged in the mid-20th century. In the mid-20th century, after decades of declining membership, the congregation abandoned the main sanctuary in favor of the smaller sanctuary (Bes Midrash) on the lower level. Rediscovered in the late 1970's in a state of severe disrepair, the building underwent a meticulous 20 year, $20 million restoration. In 2007 the fully restored space was officially rededicated as the Museum at Eldridge Street. Today the Museum welcomes visitors of all backgrounds, faiths, and interests for tours, concerts, book talks, and other programs. The surrounding neighborhood, now Chinatown, offers a rich foundation for exploring history, immigration, and urban culture. It is open to the public Sunday through Friday.

Man on the steps in front of 205 East Broadway. The tenement buildings at 201-203 East Broadway (at right) were home to the Adath Israel Synagogue and United Hebrew Community Jewish burial society, both established in 1901.

Church of St. Teresa, November 23, 1932. St. Teresa Catholic Church has occupied this Gothic Revival building since 1863 , but the edifice was not built for them. Completed 21 years earlier, the stone building was constructed as the Rutgers Presbyterian Church. The name of the architect has been lost to time, but he was at the forefront of ecclesiastical architecture. Here he chose an emerging style for New York City religious structures. The four clocks on the bell tower are considered the oldest hand-wound public clocks in the city. During the 20th century the structural integrity of the building suffered with age, culminating in the 1995 collapse of the vaulted ceiling, which rained 60,000 pounds of plaster though the main floor and into the basement. Facing possible demolition, the parish sold their adjacent property and air rights to fund the repair work. Along with this roof and interior reconstruction came also some restoration efforts, including work on the church's timepieces. The four belfry clocks had stopped functioning or their winding had long been ignored. (Photographic evidence suggests that the Rutgers Street clock face read 10:15 from the 1930s through the 1970s.) Today the church's facade, at nearly two centuries old, looks incredibly similar to what it would have looked like when built in 1842.

S. Jarmulowsky Bank Building ARCHITECT: Rouse & Goldstone DATE: 1911-12 STYLE: Modern Renaissance The S. Jarmulowsky Bank Building was described at the time of its construction as “the first strictly high-class tall bank and office building” on the Lower East Side. It was completed in 1912 as the architectural showpiece of Sender Jarmulowsky, one of the Lower East Side’s most prominent bankers. Jarmulowsky achieved wealth and fame on the Lower East Side by providing steamship tickets and banking services to the immigrants of the neighborhood, which was then unrivaled as the world’s largest Jewish community. It was executed in the “Modern Renaissance style” and the tripartite configuration that was standard for tall buildings of the time.

Garden Cafeteria, ca. 1977. Opened in June 1941 as the Garden Cafeteria by Charles Metzger, an Austrian immigrant, the restaurant and hall-for-hire was a popular meeting spot for writers of the Jewish Daily Forward (whose building was four doors down) and Jewish intellectuals. Supposedly a restaurant in this space dated to earlier in the century and was also popular among the Jewish Socialist crowd, including Leon Trotsky (who wrote for the Forward for a time in the 1910s). The Cafeteria was opened 24 hours a day and was very successful for Metzger. It was a dairy restaurant that adhered to Jewish dietary laws. Customers got a ticket upon arriving, and it got punched with every item you ordered over whatever period of time you were there. Patrons could sit for hours (and did) and paid for everything together before they left. The Cafeteria closed in 1983 and is currently a Chinese food restaurant.

197 East Broadway, ca. 1977. In 1889 the Educational Alliance was established as settlement house serving the Jewish immigrant population of the Lower East Side (though open to all races and creeds). It was the joint effort of the Aguilar Free Library Society, Hebrew Free Loan Association, and the Young Men's Hebrew Association. Their services included English language classes, educational citizenship classes, a theatre, an art school and recreational rooftop garden. Their headquarters were constructed in 1891 at 197 East Broadway. The Romanesque Revival building designed by Brunner and Tron was the central of all activity. An early supporter of the organization is Isidor Straus, philanthropist and co-owner of Macy's Department Store. He is named the president of the board in 1893 when a new board is convened following the YMHA departure from the partnership. When Straus dies in the sinking of the Titanic, the Educational Alliance is bequeathed $100,000 from his will. In the 20th century the Alliance Art School would see a number of its students go on to renown in the art world, including sculptors Chaim Gross and Concetta Scaravaglione, and painter Peter Bloom. By the 1950s, like many of the settlements houses that had survived, the Alliance shifted away from being volunteer run and introduced social services operated by trained professionals. Their later 20th century social services included running a Head Start group and Operation Street Corner, a program aimed at curbing teenage delinquency. Today the Educational Alliance continues to run its services and programs from its 1891 building.

On January 1, 1936, New York’s Lower East Side got its first subway stop, changing it from a land of crowded tenement dwellings and slums to a gentrified city district practically overnight. This is the story of the East Side Subway, איסט-סײַד אונטערבאַן. In Yiddish, the subway is called the unterban, though colloquially it was called the subvey which is how The Forward spelled it out for readers.

Discussions of vaccinations in New York City have an interesting history. The city’s 1947 smallpox outbreak is notable both for being the last smallpox outbreak in America and for spurring the largest mass vaccination effort ever conducted for smallpox in the country.

Push carts at the corner of Essex and Hester Streets, ca. 1900. The store at the near corner, with “\[wines] & liquors” awning visible, is No. 28 Essex Street. Shortly after the turn of the century, this corner was cleared for the construction of P.S. 62, an intermediate school. Two decades later, that building was torn down to facilitate subway excavation. The campus was relocated to the former site of the Ludlow Street Jail.

5 Rutgers Place, ca. 1909. The Rutgers Place Bathhouse opened in 1909 and served as a pool and hygiene facility until the financial crisis of the 1970s forced its closure. Originally surrounded by tenements and brick rowhouses, today the building still stands, though long abandoned, surrounded by a very different neighborhood. In the 1950s the surrounding neighborhood was razed for the construction of the 1100 apartments of the NYCHA LaGuardia Houses, completed in 1957. It also is no longer officially at 5 Rutgers Place, as that street and its original cross street, Monroe, were wiped away in the development of the housing project. For decades the neighbors to the vacant and deteriorating building have advocated for either its demolition (as they say it is blight) or its complete restoration into a community facility once again. These conversations came to a head in 2007, but a decade later the building still stands empty and falling apart.

24 Henry Street, July 1967. The small Federal style two-story house at 24 Henry Street was likely constructed, along with its four-story rowhouse neighbor at no. 22, in the 1820s. The well-known star of Ziegfeld Follies, Franny Brice, once lived with her mother in an apartment in this building. The musical based on her life, Funny Girl, has a scene set at and titled "24 Henry Street." The two buildings were demolished quickly and somewhat surreptitiously in 2010 and replaced with a double lot, contemporary masonry building.

Public art represents and is represented with many different forms and ideas, its creation, concept and location all come into play when looking at a piece's place in an urban landscape such as New York City. Public art takes up a space, one that is always shared with a community, part of this story would like to address how the two intersect. In some cases a piece can even breed its own community, in the case of 5 Pointz, which in itself was its own piece of public art but also a space that created a community of artists. The Graffiti Mecca can also lead us to ask the question, “What is considered public art and where is the line drawn?” This question will be explored as well as looking to an ideal future for a city where art is put at a higher priority. Where graffiti artists aren’t criminalized for their work or used for profit. Looking at spaces and experiences where a community can be represented and enhanced by public art with ways of giving back and giving all people ways of expressing themselves.

“Street scene of peddlers and street vendors on Hester Street on the Lower East Side in 1898.” At the turn of the century, Hester Street was known for its open-air push cart market, one of many hubs for Lower East Side vendors. The tenement buildings in this photo — likely on the North side of Hester Street, near Norfolk and Suffolk Streets — were soon demolished to make way for the campus of the P.S. 62 intermediate school, which opened in 1905.

Workers lay pipe for the high pressure water system beneath on New Bowery (now St. James Place); undated photo. The elevated trestle carried trains on the combined Second and Third Avenue lines, which split at Chatham Square (in the distance at far left, obscured by the horse-drawn carriage). The buildings at center-right are No.63, the Atlantic Hotel (left), and No. 59 (right), which housed the shops of furniture maker Timothy A. Garvey and John Dahlgren, a producer of decorative moldings. At far right is the entrance to First Shearith Israel Graveyard, the city's first Jewish cemetery.

The Church of the Sea and Land, viewed from the Manhattan Bridge. Photographed by Berenice Abbott as part of the Federal Art Project, March 30, 1937. At the turn of the 19th century, the Rutgers family — for whom nearby Rutgers, Henry, and Catherine Streets are named — owned a farm on the Lower East Side. After the Commissioner’s plan of 1811, Henry Rutgers donated land along Rutgers Street for the construction of churches, including the Market Street Reformed Church (also known as the Northeast Dutch Reformed Church, and variations on the same). The Georgian Gothic Revival church was constructed from field stone and Manhattan schist and completed in 1819. In 1864, following the dissolution of the Dutch Reformed Church, it became the Presbyterian Church of the Sea and Land, its new name a reference to waterfront laborers who made up the congregation. In 1972, the Sea and Land Church transferred ownership of the building to the First Chinese Presbyterian Church, who had shared the space since 1951.

Junction of Essex Street, Canal Street, East Broadway and Division Street, May 9, 1930. Seward Park, named after New York Senator and later Secretary of State William Henry Seward, is visible at center-left. Opened in October 1903, Seward Park features the first municipally-built playground in the United States.

Chatham Square Cemetery, ca. 1900. The Chatham Square Cemetery is the oldest extant cemetery of the Shearith Israel Congregation and the second oldest cemetery in Manhattan. The Sephardic congregation dates to the middle of the 17th century when Spanish and Portuguese Jews arrived in New York and established a synagogue. Their first cemetery, established in 1656, is long lost. The cemetery was purchased in 1682 with the first interment the next year. Situated on a hill overlooking the East River (or it was a hill in the colonial era) the cemetery was actually used as a strategic position by both General Washington and the British during the Revolutionary War. A ban on burials below Canal Street in 1823 signaled the end to (most) interments here; a second ground for the congregation was opened on 11th Street near Sixth Avenue. Later a third cemetery was established near Sixth Avenue and 21st Street (1829) and a fourth in Ridgewood, Queens (1850s). The size of the cemetery was somewhat drastically reduced in 1855 when the expansion of the Bowery took a sizable portion of the cemetery by eminent domain. In all 256 graves required re-interment. Today the tiny cemetery sits a few feet above the adjacent street level and about one hundred headstones and above ground tombs are visible.

At the intersection of East Broadway (left) and Canal Street (right), showing a view westward from Rutgers Street. On the extreme right, appears a portion of Seward Park. In the background on Canal Street, is seen the Canal Street station of the Second Ave. Elevated Line, and on East Broadway, a portion of the Manhattan Bridge. June 6, 1930.

Oysters are one of New York's oldest residents. There's a reason food historian Mark Kurlansky refers to New York City as "The Big Oyster," or the oyster capital of the world. The bivalves were a dietary staple of the Lenape, and in the 1600s, the New York Harbor was home to half of the world's population of oysters. Oyster barges, such as the one pictured above, were built in the mid-19th century. The boats were approximately 20 feet in width and 70 feet in length and constructed to form a wedge as to not knock the sides of neighboring barges. Inside, the floors were bowed to allow for proper drainage. Robert S. Greenberg, a historian, said to the New York Times: "oystermen during that era would steer their small sailboats up to the rear of the barges and offload their catch, which barge operators would sell wholesale or serve fresh on the piers to lines of customers." The barges served as processing plants, where the fresh products were hauled in from ships at the back, and readied for sale to the front, where the barge met the pier. At the time, oysters were a food enjoyed by New Yorkers of all stripes and went for as little as six cents per piece. Barges often had a dual purpose as speakeasies, where the briny snacks could be had alongside alcohol. However, routine overfishing and pollution caused the eventual decline of the industry by the 1920s. In 1927, the city closed all off New York Harbors oyster beds due to contamination. Though most oyster barges disappeared after the beds closed, one such vessel was purchased by Ernest Ball and moved to the river-front neighborhood of Fair Haven in New Haven. It found use as a speak-easy and was later converted into a restaurant. In 2015, plans were unveiled to bring the barge back to New York, though it would be docked on the Red Hook waterfront rather than on the East River. The barge will be disassembled and labeled, piece by piece, then put back together in its original state, with some structural updates, in the New York Harbor.

Former Madison Street Mission, ca. 1973. Now an apartment house, 209 Madison Street, was originally built in 1886 as the Madison Street Mission. The mission, an extension of the First Mariners Methodist Church, closed in 1894. Later, 209 Madison Street became home to Etz Chaim Anshei Wolozin, a Jewish congregation with roots in present-day Belarus. They occupied the space for a number of years, but like many other Lower East Side synagogues, the building was converted into a residential property in 1933.

Over a 130 years ago, New York’s Lower East Side was home to the world’s largest Jewish community. Between 1881-1924 over 2 million Eastern European Jews called this neighborhood home. And just as generations of immigrants have and continue to do, this community transformed the LES, creating a network of businesses, synagogues, public gathering spaces and more. Today, the LES has gone through many changes, but look closely. Tucked along these bustling blocks, signs of immigrant Jewish life – and hopes – still remain.

Park Row Building ARCHITECT: R. H. Robertson DATE: 1896-99 STYLE: Skyscraper The 30-story, 391-foot Park Row Building was the tallest building in New York City and one of the tallest structures in the world between 1899, the year of its completion, and 1908. It is one of several surviving late nineteenth-century buildings that formed Newspaper Row, the center of newspaper publishing in New York City from the 1840s to the 1920s. Among its many tenants, the building housed the offices of the Associated Press news agency, as well as the headquarters of August Belmont’s Interborough Rapid Transit Company. The great height and irregular plan of this building led to the use of innovative construction techniques including a pile and steel-grillage foundation, a Roehling concrete floor system for fireproofing, and Sprague Electric elevators to transport the thousands of people using the building each day.

Founded by Sender Jarmulowsky, the Jarmulowsky Bank provided vital services to the immigrants of the LES and today serves as a marker of the neighborhood's heritage.

View of 234 Cherry Street looking east from the roof of 102 Monroe Street, 1935. The Manhattan Bridge is visible in the background. Both No. 234 Cherry and the photographer's vantage point on Monroe Street were razed. Today, the site is part of the NYCHA Rutgers Houses, completed in 1965.

In the 1930s, Mayor Fiorello LaGuardia, one of New York's most powerful mayors, launched a war against an enemy that was ubiquitous on New York's streets: Pushcarts.

Northern Reformed Church ARCHITECT: Unknown DATE: 1817-19 STYLE: Georgian Gothic The Northern Reformed Church has what were probably among the earliest pointed Gothic windows and doors in Manhattan. it is an especially fine, simple example of a well-constructed church of the Federal period, and its construction was made possible through the generosity of one of New York’s leading citizens, Colonel Henry Rutgers. It was built in Georgian Gothic style.

Kosher chicken market, Hester Street, ca. 1937.

Tracks of the Second Avenue El above Division Street, viewed from the south walkway of the Manhattan Bridge. March 9, 1934. The car at left is traveling on the northbound track, from Chatham Square toward Canal Street. This segment of the elevated line closed in 1942. The building under construction in the background is the United States Courthouse at 40 Centre Street (today the Thurgood Marshall United States Courthouse).

25-29 Oliver Street, March 30, 1937. No. 25 (at right) was the childhood home of Al Smith, four-time New York State Governor. Constructed circa the 1830s, the row house was built as a single family house in a Federal style. The two-and-a-half-story home had a full third floor added in the early 1870s by its then owner, Thomas Coleman, a politician. The home was purchased by the nearby St. James Church and used as a rectory and rented out, at one point to a funeral director. Al Smith, an up and coming politician rented the building beginning in 1909 to house his family of seven. During his run for Sheriff in 1916 (Tammany-supported, he won, of course), a large painting of the man bordered in red, white, and blue hung in front of the building. By that time Oliver Street had become something of a Politicians Row, home to magistrates, state senators, and even the coroner. Smith remained on Oliver Street until the mid 1920s. 25 Oliver Street returned to its occupation as a funeral home once again after the Smith family moved upstate while their patriarch was Governor. In 1939 Berenice Abbott photographed the building and two years later a section of bluestone sidewalk from the front of the house was dislodged and placed in the SS Alfred E. Smith, a transport ship. Though named a National Historic Landmark in 1965, today the building is considerably run down.

“A crowd of people on Orchard Street, lined with street vendors. Orchard Street at Hester Street, Looking South, 1898.” Division Street is visible at the end of Orchard Street. Orchard and Hester Streets were home to two of the Lower East Side’s largest open-air pushcart markets. These markets were a feature of daily life for the neighborhood’s poor tenement residents; they provided cheap food and goods for customers and income for vendors.

Orchard Street pushcarts, ca. 1940. As Mayor Fiorello LaGuardia worked to eliminate the unregulated outdoor vendors who had long been a fixture of Lower East Side life, commerce on Orchard Street shifted from push carts to garment retail.

Abraham Cahan, leader, publisher, and writer, was the founding editor of the Forward, America's oldest independent Jewish news organization. Born in 1860, to an Orthodox family in Podberzhie a small shtetl near Vilna (Vilnius) Lithuania, in what is today Belarus, the unorthodox, socialist Cahan had been a revolutionary in his youth. He identified with the narodny (folks) movement that opposed the Czar and briefly believed in a kind of agricultural socialism. Escaping the Czar’s secret police along with his fellow communards of the Am Olam, movement, Cahan arrived in the U.S. in 1882 with the idea of creating agricultural communes here.

At the peak of its popularity, the Jewish Daily Forward erected a ten-story office building at 175 East Broadway designed by architect George Boehm and completed in 1912. The building includes marble columns, stained glass windows, and bas reliefs of Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels, Ferdinand Lassalle (founder of the first mass German labor party) and a fourth portrait of an unknown man (thought to be some other German socialist). The Forward moved out of the building in 1974 and it was used as a Chinese church for some time. In the early 2000s the building was converted into condos.

Doyers seen from Bowery, ca. 1900. The Chinese Tuxedo opened in 1897 as a high-class restaurant catering to both Chinese and white patrons. Established around the same time as a number of other eateries of similar ilk (including Port Arthur on Mott and the Chinese Delmonico on Pell), this restaurant had a district advantage over the others. Location, location, location! The restaurant at the corner of Doyer Street and the Bowery was so close to the Third Avenue elevated that passengers could practically climb out the train car window onto the ornate second-floor balcony. The pretty balcony and large eagle that topped it were eye-catching from both the street and the el, and when those same passengers exited the nearby Chatham Square Station, this was the first Chinese restaurant they encountered. The owners spared no expense with decoration. The entrance included a large and colorful stained glass awning with a dragon perched atop. The balcony was not metalwork but delicately carved teak panels. The interior was a showy display of mosaic tile floors, tin ceilings, lush plants, fountains, and hard carved screens, statues, and moldings. The Chinese Tuxedo was out of business by the 1920s (closing its doors decades before some of it local contemporaries). The ornate facade features were lost and today the building houses a Chase Bank. In 2016 a family-run Chinatown investment company opened a new Chinese Tuxedo Restaurant just down the block from its historical predecessor. The new eatery is located at 5-7 Doyers, a building with its own history. In 1983 a local merchant established the Chinese Opera House at no. 5-7, the first Chinese language theater in New York City and the only Chinese theater east of California at the time.

There are many distinguished people featured in the Hall of Fame of Great Americans at Bronx Community College. One who stands apart as a true community leader is Lillian Wald, the nurse, activist, and author renowned for establishing the Henry Street Settlement (HSS) and the Visiting Nurse Service of New York (VNSNY).

Looking east on Canal Street from the intersection of Division Street. The tall building at left is the Jewish Daily Forward Building, designed by architect George Boehm and completed in 1912. The Jewish Daily Foward was founded in 1897 and was published in Yiddish. The paper is still published, with the English-language printed weekly and the Yiddish printed by-weekly.

Central and Prospect Park parks dominate New York City park history. While that’s somewhat understandable, it’s about time smaller parks got some attention of their own.

Congregation Sons of Israel Kalwarie, ca. 1978. The Romanesque Revival synagogue was designed by Alfred E. Badt and completed in 1904. Also known as the Pike Street Shul, the synagogue closed in controversial circumstances, beginning in September 1979. Just prior to Rosh Hashanah, the trustees sold the building without notifying the congregation, beginning a 15-year legal battle which ended with its eventual sale to a developer. Though 13-15 Pike Street was made a New York City landmark in 1997, the designation came too late to save its original stained glass windows. Today, it is home to the Sung Tak Buddhist Temple.

“Looking west from the intersection of Division and Canal Streets at Ludlow Street.” The Twin Towers of the World Trade Center, completed in 1973, are visible along Division Street, at left.

View of the Manhattan Civic Center, including the Municipal Building, U.S. Courthouse, and Woolworth Building, ca. 1935. The building at extreme right, in the foreground is the Church of Land and Sea, at the northwest corner of Henry and Market Streets.

In 1912, the Forward built a grand, 10-story building at 175 East Broadway; its offices remained there until 1974. Two huge 30,000-watt neon rooftop signs proclaimed the paper’s name in glowing Yiddish (facing north) and English (facing south). The signs could be seen from East River bridges and all over the Lower East Side.

The Seward Park branch of The New York Public Library on Manhattan’s Lower East Side can trace its roots back to 1886, when the Aguilar Free Library Society founded it. The branch, which opened its doors at its current location on November 11, 1909, is located at the eastern edge of the park for which it is named. The four-story, red brick Renaissance Revival building was one of 65 NYPL branches built with funds from Andrew Carnegie, and it boasts high ceilings and arched windows designed by the firm Babb, Cook & Welch.

Foward Building ARCHITECT: George A. Boehm DATE: 1912 STYLE: Beaux-Arts, Skyscraper The Forward Building, a ten-story Beaux-Arts style skyscraper completed in 1912, is a major early work of architect George A. Boehn whose nearly fifty-year practice was distinguished by designs for public buildings in New York City and Westchester. The ten-story Forward Building remains to this day a towering presence within the context of its immediate Lower East Side neighborhood.

Doorway to 113 East Broadway, March 30, 1937.

The intersection of downtown's Canal and Essex has long been a favorite for seasonal Jewish holiday shopping. Specifically, for the date palm fronds, ritual citron fruits, myrtle and willow branches required for prayers on the Sukkoth, or sukes in Yiddish, harvest holiday. These are still only sold in the brief window of time that is the week after the Day of Atonement and the start of Sukkoth, usually by local community street vendors that build temporary pop-up kiosks just for that purpose.

The big, bold signage of the historic Lower East Side is part of its iconic legacy. From gold leaf Yiddish lettering on Kosher shop windows to gleaming neon marquees, the many big & busy storefront signs certainly contributed to the frenetic, frenzied atmosphere of the streets. And there are still some great signs in the neighborhood! But a lot has been lost, too. Here are some of our favorite signs we wish were still hanging around the Lower East Side today. There's a corresponding blog post to go along with this story (plus an extra sign that's not in this list!) at www.eldridgestreet.org/blog/lessigns!

Mariners’ Temple Baptist Church, Oliver Street, ca. 1977. The Mariners’ Temple Baptist Church was completed in 1845 as the Oliver Street Baptist Church for a congregation likely dating to the 1790s. The first Oliver Street church, a wooden structure, was lost in an 1843 fire. The Landmarks Preservation commission credits the present Greek revival structure to architect Minard Lafever, while other sources suggest Isaac Lucas, a member of the congregation. In 1863, the church was renamed to Mariner's Temple to reflect its ministry to seamen and immigrants. After decades of declining attendance during the 20th century, church membership has lately rebounded.

"Beth Abraham Chasidim D'Slonim Synagogue, June 6, 1930. The congregation, named for the city of Slonim in present-day Belarus, was organized in 1897. The synagogue appears on early 20th century maps, though a building existed on its lot much earlier. In subsequent years, congregations associated with other Eastern European immigrant communities worshipped there. By the mid 1980s (when its lot is vacant in tax photos), the synagogue had been was demolished. The Rabbi Jacob Joseph School (left), organized in 1901, was built in 1912-3."

East Broadway, ca. 1980. Signs mark a diverse set of storefront shops and offices. From left: Mobile Crisis Unit of Gouverneur Hospital (No. 185); West Lake Noodle Co. Inc, Sun Trading Co. (No. 183); E.Bway Kosher Bakery (No. 181).

The longtime home of the Jewish Daily Forward sits on East Broadway between Rutgers and Jefferson Streets. Since its construction in 1912, the Forward Newspaper building has been a staple of the Lower East Side. Today, it is a testament to the neighborhood’s changing landscape. The Forward Newspaper Under the leadership of its founding editor Abraham Cahan, the Forward not only served as the Jewish immigrant community’s most significant news source, but also granted the community a voice. Starting in 1902, Cahan invited readers to send their stories and responses to topical questions such as ‘May a women wear rouge?’ and ‘Can a socialist go to synagogue for Rosh Hashanah?’ The newspaper’s most popular section was an advice column titled ‘The Bintel Brief.’ Readers posed questions to the editors on lighthearted and serious themes. One struggling reader, who was losing his job, wrote the paper wondering whether he should keep a portion of his income or give it to his blind father in Russia. The editors advised him to give the money to his ailing father as the reader, a young man, remained employable. The Forward building exemplified the newspaper’s importance. It continues to be one of the tallest buildings in the neighborhood and arguably one of the most beautiful. Elegant terra-cotta designs and classical figures adorn its facade. Neighborhood lore claims that Abraham Cahan wanted the entire neighborhood to see the building. After Word War II, the newspaper declined as the worldwide population of Yiddish speaking people shrank and assimilation took hold in the United States. In 1983, to save the paper, an English language supplement was created. Today, The Forward exists with a rich on-line presence of over one million monthly visitors. The newspaper is no longer Socialist leaning, but continues to report on politics, art and culture. A Chinese Church and Bible Factory Just as the newspaper was forced to adapt, so has the building. In 1974, with falling readership, the newspaper sold it to the Lau family, who transformed the bottom floors into a Chinese church and the top floors into a bible factory. Luxury Apartments In 2004, developers Ronald Castellano and Christopher Hayes took over the building and converted it into luxury apartments. A one bedroom apartment recently sold for 1.545 million dollars, and Oscar winning actress Tatum O’Neal once owned an apartment in the building. Amenities include 24 hour doorman, roof deck and a refrigerator in the lobby to store perishable deliveries. Fortunately, the facade is a landmark. Relics of its previous life remain, including the decorative busts of Socialist leaders Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, who gaze down on today’s capitalist tenants. The Forward building epitomizes the changing landscape of the Lower East Side. The neighborhood first took shape with the arrival of immigrants at the turn of the 20th century and became a bustling and crowded hub. But as gentrification spread across New York City, the area underwent transformation. Instead of the classic Jewish delicatessen and other Jewish stores, there are art galleries, vegan restaurants and organic supermarkets. The neighborhood once housed the city’s most impoverished communities; now, it inhabits the city’s most affluent. The Museum At Eldridge Street, preserves the Lower East Side’s history, while as a cultural institution it is also arguably part of the gentrification equation.

Back in 1930, a year into this country’s greatest economic depression, everyone’s favorite Yiddish newspaper was getting spooky with their ads. This Yiddish Forverts Breyer’s ice cream ad for Halovin featured witches soaring and a 2 quart special order nut filled pumpkin flavored ice cream Jack- o’- lantern. Other unique flavor combos for the holiday were on offer, such as ‘choconut’ and orange as well as Halloween decorative novelties including cats, dried colored corn and skulls. Given the pagan, death centric holiday that is Halloween, it wasn't a natural with the Forward's immigrant readership. Forward former Executive Editor and Whiskey Correspondent Dan Friedman recalled it best "For the Jewish community — coming from Europe — the devilish practices of Halloween were not only bewildering but also threatening. Yes, we could come to terms with people walking the streets dressed in costumes, but it was harder to understand an alien custom where people banged on our front doors demanding goods — promising retribution if they weren’t satisfied. “Trick or treat” seemed, if not quite a pogrom, a lose-lose proposition. As indeed perhaps it still does." And yet, the Yiddish paper had done a lot of public service journalism on behalf of Halloween for its readership. Mystical Yiddish writer and poet Dovid Einhorn spent columns of text explaining the early Druid roots to Halloween. The Forward's Jay Grayson, normally on the sports beat, clearly had time to spare and contributed his thoughts on how Jewish parents ought to permit their children to go out trick or treating. Don't fear the doorbell ringing on Halloween, he advised. Do as the Americans do and generously offer free candy to the strangers in costumes! And as far as Breyer's-the Forward had what to say on the topic of ice cream as well, with Friedman initiating a series on Jews and ice cream (with staff doing the tastings!), and former Forward Middle East Correspondent Naomi Zeveloff uncovering their own family relationship to the Haagen-Daazs mishpokhe. What's left to say except, L'chaim Halovin!

"Riots in New York July-Aug '63; northeast corner of Catherine and Cherry Street during the Draft Riots in 1863." The New York City Draft Riots were a week-long violent action that occurred in Manhattan in the summer of 1863. The impetus for the riots was discontent among working-class populations (largely Irish immigrants) with new laws regarding a draft for the Civil War. The working classes were upset at the wealthy who could buy their way out of conscription for $300. What began as a discontent regarding the draft, in the days as the first draft numbers were being drawn, quickly devolved into race riots. White mobs attacked black people and their homes, public buildings, the homes of abolitionists, churches, and in a violent conflagration, the Colored Orphan Asylum at 44th Street and Fifth Avenue was burned to the ground. The police department attempted to quell the violence but had little luck. (The police superintendent John Alexander Kennedy was brutally beaten.) The military eventually arrived and by July 16 (four days after the riot had begun) there were several thousand Federal troops in the city, and news had begun to spread that the draft was being postponed. The results of the riots were drastic, 120 people killed, more than 2000 injured, hundreds of homes and business damaged and 11 black men lynched. As a result of this violence, many blacks who lived in Manhattan left the city and moved to Brooklyn. The population shift was so dramatic that by 1865, the number of blacks living in Manhattan was lower than it had been in 1820.

Storefronts at 62-66 Hester Street advertise silks, woolens, dress goods, laundry, and “family electric shoe repairing."

Henry Street view towards City Hall and the Woolworth Building, 1938. Surprisingly little has changed on this block in nearly eighty years: many of the tenement buildings are still standing, and a parking lot continues to operate on the south side of the street.